Micro Economics notes

NOTES_FOR__MICROECONOMICS

Computer worms, virus and security threats

Avoiding computer worms, virus and security threats.

One obvious method of reducing the risk of attack is to avoid whatever is the most attacked set of products. This means avoiding MS-DOS, Windows and MS Office applications, in favour of less popular products. If you must use the same products as others, consider at least removing Outlook Express, Outlook, Internet Explorer, VBA, scripting, and any automatic execution of Office macros.

History

The first one on a personal computer was probably Richard Skrenta's Elk Cloner, on the Apple II around 1980. Even the term virus didn't exist then. This was mentioned in Scientific American. The first for the IBM PC was the 1986 Brain, done as an advertising stunt by a Pakistan computer shop run by Basit and Amjad Farooq Alvi.

The first ones I saw were Jerusalem, and the New Zealand product Stoned. We couldn't stop it infecting a PC and had to work out a way to make it think it had already infected everything, so it wouldn't bother doing so again. Eventually we kludged write protected hardware for the hard drives in the student labs, and that settled things down.

Around 1990 there was a Bulgarian virus bulletin board that helped spread code (including development kits) for writing new viruses. The 1992 Virus Creation Lab and other tools appeared, so many really badly written viruses appeared.

Delivery of Virus Attacks

Most virus attacks work through social engineering. That is, the user is somehow persuaded that they should actually run the virus. This method applies to any operating system at all.

The next most common attack is via bugs in existing programs and operating systems.

A virus needs to infect local files. The preference is to infect executable (program) files.

Why is Windows So Vulnerable?

Partly because there are more Windows PCs. Partly because by default a Windows user has traditionally had full administrative power to do anything on the computer. Partly because to enhance ease of use, programs can run automatically (for example, when you insert a CD).

On Unix and Linux, users are generally discouraged from operating the computer as an administrator. A virus in these systems can only infect files owned by the local user, and as a local user, you have no special administrative power. You can not infect normal program files. You can (and should) set up Macintosh and Windows systems so that you normally do not run as administrator

In Windows it is easy to run an infected file from a local directory, since by default that works. In Linux, by default it is harder to do so, since by default it doesn't work.

In Windows, and file ending in .exe, .com, .bat, .pif, .vbs, .scr (and others I've forgotten) is considered executable. In addition, by default Windows hides file extensions, so you don't even know whether a file is an executable (always turn extensions on).

In Linux you need to tell the system that a file can be executed, so there are often additional steps you need to do before a virus can act.

Windows provides a monoculture, while Linux is not. There is one major email system. As a result, any attack on a vulnerability in Outlook or Outlook Express automatically catches large numbers of users. This particular attack has happened at least once a year for the past five years.

Virus Types

Boot sector

Most early viruses spread from an MS-DOS floppy disk being booted. Once on a hard drive (usually in the master boot record), they generally infected any floppy disks inserted into that PC. Protect against these by never booting from a floppy disk. Set your BIOS so that your PC does not boot from a floppy disk, but only from its own hard drive.

Executable file infector

Copy themselves to files that can be executed, such as .com, .exe, .bin, .drv, .dll, .ovl, .ovy, .sys, lnk, even .bat Hang around in memory, infecting every such file. Some use boot sector means to infect files also (and may be called bimodal viruses). You basically need to get your programs from reliable sources (hint - there are no reliable sources). Open source software where you can read and compile the code yourself is far safer. Consider only installing new programs if you really need the product, and only from a recognised software vendor. Do not under any circumstances use any browser or internet program that permits programs found on the web to execute.

Macro virus

As at the turn of the century, most viruses are application specific macro viruses. They mostly infect Microsoft Office products, but can be written for any application with a sufficiently complex macro language. General solution, turn off macros and scripting in the products you use. If not possible, use different products. Personally, I'd regard removing Visual Basic and turning off scripting as minimal precautions.

Virus Tricks

Some overwrite part of their host file so the length of the file is unchanged, so you can't spot them just by checking file lengths. These may be called a cavity virus.

Some modify directory table entries to run before other programs, so although the virus is only in one location, running any program starts it. Cluster viruses appear to infect everything.

Companion viruses rely upon DOS files executing in a certain order. .bat executes before .com which executes before .exe. If people are likely to run a named .exe program, having the virus with the same name but a .com extensions runs it first.

Fast infectors when in memory infect every application that is opened, even without it being run. If you run an antivirus program the virus has it made, as antivirus programs open all other programs to check whether they are infected. That is one of the reasons an antivirus checks memory first.

Some anti virus programs check for virus patterns. Polymorphic viruses, whose source code was published by Mark Washburn around 1990, include encryption and decryption code, so the body of the virus can have totally different patterns. You have to search for the decrypter (and there may be several different types of decrypter). Trident's TPE and other polymorphic kits like DAME and NED made it easier for less skilled virus writers to make their own versions. Versions may use random number generators and mutation engines to change their patterns.

Back Orifice (1998) is a Trojan (a program you believe does something else) done as a remote system administration tool to allow someone else to control your PC.

Strange Brew, the first Java virus, also appeared (Java, at least in applet form, was intended to be safe).

Bubbleboy demonstrated how to infect by opening an email in Outlook or previewing in Outlook Express (which is one reason I say dump Outlook off your system). Kak showed how well that technique worked as a virus.

Email

Virus writers attempt to get you to either execute attachments, or take advantage of bugs in common mail clients to execute code. Set Outlook Express and Internet Explorer to prompt before opening attachments at the very least. Scan all attachments with an antivirus before opening them.

Removing Outlook Express and Outlook from your system is a very good start in improving security. Replace them with safer email clients such as Pegasus or Eudora, and newsreaders such as Agent.

Windows Scripting Host, Internet Explorer and Web Access

Remove the Windows Scripting Host in Windows 98 setup (it is installed automatically by Internet Explorer). In File Types, remove VBScript. Remove any .vbs associations. Remove Visual Basis entirely if you can get away with it.

Remove Internet Explorer using 98Lite. Replace it with a safer browser such as Opera. Turn off Javascript, and enable it only for trusted sites that demand it (like banks). Unless you need the Java Virtual machine for some applet, consider not installing it.

If you must run Internet Explorer, turn the Security Settings to High. Refuse to deal with web sites that ask you to turn it lower. Please note that some antivirus sites (amongst others) may ask you to turn it down for system checks. Use a different antivirus instead.

File Names

Turn file extensions on in Explorer. The default of leaving them off is monumentally stupid. Learn the extensions for all executable files, and know what you are doing before running any of them.

Macro Virus

Enable macro virus warnings in all MS Office products. Protect Word's normal.dot global template, and do not allow random Word files to change it. Keep up to date with all Microsoft security patches (all 100 a year of them), despite their patches sometimes stuffing up your PC. Better yet, use the Disable Macros option as well. Best, remove MS Office and use some safer product.

Anti-Virus

I sometimes think anti-virus vendors are as much a part of the problem as a solution.

Anti-virus vendors regularly describe harmless proof of concept virus as a danger, under circumstances where there really is no problem. Anti-virus vendors are adept at spreading fear, uncertainty and doubt, in an attempt to sell their programs.

McAfee claimed it had discovered the first Linux virus, Bliss, on 5 February 1997, and had a cure. Actually Staog predated it in mid 1996. Bliss was announced on Usenet on 29 September 1996. It was a proof of concept virus which included detailed logs of its action and had a removal option included.

How to Access Your Computer's Programs on Windows Without Using the Start Menu

If your computer won't let you access all programs through the start menu, here's how to access them otherwise.
STEPS:

Windows Vista

1. Open the start menu.
2. Click Computer.
3. Double-click on the Local Disc (C:) icon (May be named slightly different on some computers).
4. Click an empty space on the address bar (Bar at top of screen that says Computer > Local Disc (C:)).
5. Type C:\ProgramData and press enter/return.
6. Open the Microsoft folder.
7. Open the Windows folder.
8. Open the Start Menu folder.
9. Open the Programs folder.

Windows XP

1. Open My Computer, on your desktop.
2. Double-click on the Local Disc (C:) icon (May be named slightly different on some computers).
3. Open the Documents and Settings folder).
4. Open the user folder that you want to access programs from.
5. Open the Start Menu Folder.
6. Open the Programs folder.

TIPS:

Tips

• When you are in the Documents and Settings folder, you would generally want to open the folder of the user name that you are currently using.
• If some programs are missing, try accessing All Users inside Documents and Settings, instead of your user name.
• The full address for Windows XP is C:\Documents and Settings\Your User name\Start Menu\Programs and for Windows Vista is C:\Program Data\Microsoft\Windows\Start Menu.

E-Commerce

WHAT IS E-COMMERCE?

E-Commerce is about setting your business on the Internet, allowing visitors to access your website, and go through a virtual catalog of your products / services online. When a visitor wants to buy something he/she likes, they merely, "add" it to their virtual shopping basket. Items in the virtual shopping basket can be added or deleted, and when you're all set to checkout...you head to the virtual checkout counter, which has your complete total, and will ask you for your name, address etc. and method of payment (usually via credit card). Once you have entered all this information (which by the way is being transmitted securely) you can then just wait for delivery. Its that simple. According to a CNN Opinion Poll, 62% of respondents who were surveyed said they plan to shop online during the Christmas season. Newsweek devoted its front page story to "shopping.com" in its December 7, 1998 issue (Asian Edition). The title was "Why Online Stores are the Best Thing since Santa Claus".

E-Commerce is not about just online stores, its about anything and everything to do with money. If you pay (via cash, check, credit card, etc.) E-Commerce is about to make an introduction into your life soon. Banks like Bank of America and Wells Fargo are now giving their clients accessibility to their bank accounts via the web. Soon enough, banks in Pakistan would be following suit. Days are not far away (yes in Pakistan!) when you would be able to order and reserve your request for a movie at the local video store (all online) be able to browse through various titles, etc. and if you are feeling hungry, access the local restaurant and order dinner.

In short, by implementing E-Commerce, you save money, are online 24 hours-a-day, 7 days-a-week, no traffic jams, shopping crowds, carrying overloaded heavy shopping bags etc. Just more business, the easy way.

How to Save Power on a Laptop

So you want to save some juice on your laptop... find out how!

Steps

1. Be sure to make the brightness of your computer to the lowest setting that is comfortable. To do this, look for a purple "fn" button on the keyboard(usually next to the left ctrl key, sometimes the key has blue lettering instead of purple). After you've found the "fn" button, quickly search for another key with a purple or blue sun with an up or down arrow(usually on the arrow keys or on one of the F1-F12 keys). Now while holding "fn" press the button with the purple/blue sun and a down arrow.
2. Turn off all background programs that are not needed because they take up processor space which will use more battery.
3. Check that bluetooth and/or wireless adapter is off (if it's built in).
4. Be sure to eject any discs out of your CD or DVD drive if you do not need them. The disc will still be spinning inside and consumes a ton of energy.
5. If you are running very low on power, or are watching a DVD, your laptop may have a way to turn off the LED lights (Power light, hard drive activity light, etc.). Check your owners manual to see how.
6. Unplug any USB devices you are not using (iPods, Flash Drives, External USB mice, etc.). Many of these devices draw power from your USB port, up to 500 mA (about a half an Amp) and 5 volts. It adds up quickly depending on how many you have plugged in.
7. When you are not going to use your laptop for a short time, put it into standby or sleep mode. This will only leave dire essential components in the computer running such as the memory. And allow you to resume working on your computer quickly.
8. When you are not going to be using your laptop for a even longer time, put it into hibernate(Shift+Standby Button) mode. It will have the same effect as turning the computer off, but it will allow you to go back to working on your laptop just like in standby and uses little to no power from the battery.

Tips

• You can always buy extra batteries for your computer!
• The best way, though not effective for travel, is to use your power cord.

How to Make a Wireless Antenna

Have you lost your wireless antenna from the back of your network card? no problem! make one from scratch using some solder (or pliable wire) about 15 cm, and a thumb tack. The wire will act as the 'antenna' while the thumb tack will secure it in place

Steps

1. Grab some solder (preferably thick) or some bendy wire/solder and wrap it around the point of a thumb tack. this will provide you with a small loop about that same size as the inner 'pin' on the back of your wireless card.
2. Bend the wire at a 90 degree angle just under the loop you just created. this will allow for easy insertion when you place it around the inner 'pin'
3. Place the wire around the pin, and wrap the remaining wire around the outside 'threads' where you would normally screw in the antenna.
4. Insert the thumb tack in between the inner 'pin' and the small loop you made. this is to ensure the inner pin is always in contact with the solder.
5. The other end of the wire/solder can be wrapped around any cable from the back of your computer to enhance wireless reception.
   
   

Tips

• Depending on where your computer is, leaving the wire/solder dangling down from the card may also provide adequate reception.
• Fiddle with it! The main objective is to have the wire looped around the inner 'pin'(the input into the card), and because this is so small, it can require a few tries(use the thumbtack!). After that, it is just a matter of securing the solder/wire into place by wrapping it around the outer 'thread'. The thumbtack is also only there to secure the wire into position.
• The thicker the solder is, the better.
• Making the end of the antenna touch the chassis of the computer may enhance reception.

Warnings

• Keep the thumbtack away from your eyes, and any chair you may wish to sit on.
• Even though "Wireless" (or any radio) is non-ionizing, RFR (Radio Frequency Radiation) exposure should be minimized. If possible, shut down your computer or disable the wireless card.
• Electric Current runs through the "pin", and will also run through the thumbtack when a connection has been made. Play it safe; keep one hand in your pocket to prevent a current traveling through your heart.

Things You'll Need

• Solder or wire
• Thumbtack

How to Find Accurate Gps Maps

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense.GPS is utilized for commercial applications as well as consumer needs, and because those commercial uses can get quite specialized.

Steps

1. Satisfy your needs: Do make a list of the features you need for your map so that you do not get confused over it. Always make sure that you make a best buy.
2. POI: Your GPS maps must have a comprehensive listings of Point of Interest. Now you will never have to search for ATM,it is just a tap away. POI may include any of the landmarks which may be related to your work like a temple, restaurants, hotels, gas stations, parks.
3. Large Screen: You must ensure you have large screen to ensure large map viewing area.
4. Voice Alert: You must make sure that your map provides with a clear and multiple voice alerts on upcoming user defined point of Interests in all the directions to reach the destination.
5. Bird-eye view: Do make sure that your map contains various enhancements like Bird-eye view ,an enhancement of standard map view.
6. Night color Skin: You must make sure that your map contains enhanced features like Night color skin ,in order to assist night time driving.
7. Show route: You must make sure that your map indicates proper distance as well as estimated traveling times,which helps you in making your journey easierr.
8. Driving direction: You must make sure that your maps provides with detailed, clear and visible driving directions.
9. Avoid Road features: You must make sure that your map contains select the avoid road feature.
10. Memory: You must make sure that your map has enough memory ,so that you do not face problems while you are moving from one state to another as storing detailed map data necessary for navigating requires a lot of memory.
11. Price: You must make sure that the map is within your budget with enough features required by you.
12. Upgradation: You must make sure that you can easily upgrade your GPS map as and when required may be with a nominal charge.

Tips

• You must make sure that GPS can be used in any type of weather.
• Do make sure that GPS can be used on land, in the air, and for marine applications.
• You can even store your favorite destinations.

Warnings

• GPS accuracy gets affected by noise in the radio signals.
• GPS even gets affected by the change of satellite positioning.
• Heavy tree cover and cliffs, steep hills, or tall buildings can interfere your signal.
• GPS maps are highly sensitive.

How to Change the Name of a Wireless Network

Here, this article will explain how to change the name of your wireless network.This will effect how others see your network by giving your network a unique name. All you will need is your router setup manual or information, and a web browser. What you will be doing is editing your router settings. Refer to your manual to learn how to edit them!

Steps

1. Remember most routers are configured through a default IP address in your network, commonly 192.168.0.1, 192.168.1.1, 192.168.1.254, or similar address. You enter the IP address of your router into your web browser's address bar and hit "enter".
2. Navigate to the Wireless section of the router control panel, once you are there.
3. Note that the the setting you will be wanting to change may be called one of two things... Wireless Network Name or more commonly "SSID". In this field, you can change your wireless name to whatever you please.
4. Remember, whenever someone comes within range of your wireless network, instead of seeing a default name for the router, they will see your personal router name!

How to Set up a Wireless Network in Linux

A walkthrough of wireless (IEEE 802.11 also known as WiFi) home networking with Linux.

Steps

When buying a router, note compatibility with Linux. It is wireless adapters that have varying levels of Linux compatibility. If your router isn't new, then turn it on and skip to "Detecting your wireless adapter" (below).

Set up your new router

1. Plug your router into your internet socket if you want to share your internet.
2. Plug your router into your PC with an ethernet cable.
3. 

   Linksys router setup screen
   Go to your browser and type in the address "192.168.0.1" or whichever address the router's web server is listening.
4. Enter your username and password from your router (often "admin" and "admin") then your internet service provider.
5. Enable wireless and set your encryption (WEP or WPA) and type a memorable passkey.

Detecting your wireless adapter

1. Your wireless adapter should be detected automatically by your distribution.
2. Type sudo lshw to list hardware (or lspci or lsusb).
3. If it's not there you will need to lsmod and modprobe (modules are like drivers).
4. Typing iwconfig into the terminal can determine what wireless network interfaces have been detected.
5. If it isn't and you're using Linux Mint, try MintWifi.
6. You may need to use ndiswrapper and your Windows driver.

Connecting to a network

1. If you're using KDE, consider KWiFiManager and click "Scan for Networks".
2. If you're using Gnome, consider NetworkManager.
3. Choose your "Encryption" (WEP or WPA) and enter your passkey.

How to Create a Wireless Network

Computer networking is a great way to collaborate with other computer users in your home or office. While it is becoming increasingly easy for the basic computer user, it can still be a difficult, frustrating experience for many people.

Before You Get Started

Understand the difference between town-wide wireless broadband (IEEE 802.16/WiMAX/Mobile broadband) and a home wireless network (IEEE 802.11). This article deals only with the latter, generally known as WiFi (which requires no subscription, no roof aerial, no roof mounted dish). Wireless routers are variously known as gateways, access points, transmitters, hubs and switches. They are generally external and will be known as routers for this article. Wireless adapters are also known as modems or receivers and can be internal or external.

Steps

1. If buying router and adapter separately, ensure your wireless router is at least as new as your wireless adapter so that they use compatible standards (known as 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n). For maximum compatibility choose Tri-mode or dual-mode 802.11b/g standards.
2. If you are not using Windows XP, check that drivers are available for the chipset of the wireless adapter for your operating system before you buy.

Set up your new router

1. If you want to share a broadband connection via a wireless router, plug the new wireless router into your internet connection point (filter/splitter if ADSL, directly into phone socket if DSL)
2. If you have one, turn on your broadband connection and existing external modem FIRST (wait for all lights to return to normal).
3. Plug your router into your PC with an ethernet cable
4. Turn on your new wireless router SECOND (wait for it to start up fully).
5. Go to your internet browser and type http://192.168.0.1 (Belkin), http://192.168.1.1 (Linksys), http://192.168.2.1 (Others) and enter your username and password for your router (often this is "admin" for username and "admin" or "password" for password)
6. Enable wireless capability (SSID) and enter your username and password given to you by your internet service provider.
7. Choose WPA (or WEP if your card cannot handle WPA) security and enter a passkey and write it down.

Detecting your wireless adapter

1. Note the manufacturer and model of your wireless adapter then plug it into your PC.
2. If your operating system does not recognise the wireless adapter then get drivers from any discs that came with the adapter or, failing that, from the internet.
3. In Windows XP, either right click on the .inf file and click install, or enter Device Manager and Update Drivers on the Unknown Device.
4. Once Windows XP recognises your wireless device it should appear in Network Connections and offer you a choice of routers to connect to within range.

Connecting to a network

1. Choose your router (usually the manufacturer name aka SSID), the security method and enter the passkey in order to connect to it. Use Auto DHCP unless otherwise instructed.
2. This should find the wireless router (click refresh until it does) and connect to the network through the new router.

Tips

• Sharing files (or ensuring that your computers are really networked) and/or a printer in Windows XP, requires Print and File Sharing enabled on all computers.
• In Windows XP or Vista, go to Start > Control Panel > Network Connections (click "Switch to Classic View" if you cannot see the Network Connections icon) > right click on your Local Area Connection ethernet adapter > Properties > check File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks > Click "OK"
• In Mac OS X, click on the Apple menu on the Menu Bar and click on "System Preferences...". Then, click on "Sharing". Then you may select which service that you want to be shared on your wireless network. For further support, click on the Apple Support Page link for sharing on your wireless network. Apple Sharing Support
• A passkey is not the same as a HEX key
• Check to be sure your wireless function key on your keyboard is enabled.

Warnings

• You rarely, if ever, need to use the manufacturor supplied software to access a wireless network. All modern operating systems are capable of this by default.
• Turning on your equipment in the wrong order could cause your new setup to not work! Be sure to power on each item in order. It really does matter.
• Remember to set up your security settings to prevent unauthorized access to your network. WPA encryption is much more secure than WEP.
• Also remember to change the default passwords and usernames on your wireless router. Many wardrivers will travel around finding hotspots and then trying the default codes for that type of access point. This could result in you getting locked out of your own router and having to manualy reset your network.

How to Remove a Virus

If you suspect you have a virus (or any other malware), you should take steps immediately. The following procedures work for most malware (except perhaps for completely new, unknown or unusually malignant strains). It is better to complete all steps, so you can be (reasonably) sure that all traces have been removed. Signs to look out for (infections may cause one or several of the following)

• Slow computer, and/or slow internet connection.
• Strange pop-ups or web browser redirections (beyond those expected from dodgy websites).
• Program failure, or inexplicab
le errors (even after a fresh install).System functions unavailable (eg: Control Panel, Task
• Manager, Internet Explorer).
• System giving a "RPC error", giving a window with a 30 second countdown to a restart.
• Excessive internet cap usage, i.e high internet traffic on your computer.

STEPS:

1. Run your virus-scanner, but beware, many modern viruses can circumvent (or hide from) anti-virus programs. Quarantine anything suspicious.
   • Make sure you are using a reputable antivirus. Some good free ones are Avira AntiVir, AVG, and Avast!
2. Install MalwareBytes Anti-Malware and update it. Don't scan for malware yet.
3. Install SUPERAntiySpyware and update it. Don't scan for malware yet.
4. Reboot into Safe Mode - Restart your computer and press F8 before Windows loads. Press F8 several times if you need to. Select Safe Mode from the resulting menu. Safe Mode disables much of the startup routine (including some common Malware hiding places).
5. Run your Malware Scanners - Run both the scanners sequentially, deleting any references found.
6. Enjoy your sanitised computer.

Computer c++notes

C programing

Some words about Computer Programming languages:
Naturally a language is the source of communication between two persons, and also between person to machine like computer. The languages we can use to communicate with the computer are known as Computer programming languages.
Generally there are two major types of languages are available are as follows:
1.Low level languages
2.The set of commands available in low level is complex and not easy to understandable. In this category " Assembly " and " machine codes " are available. Assembly programs are faster than other high-level language programs.
3.High level languages
The set of commands available in high level language is very simple and easy to understandable.
High level languages are further divided into two major categories.
1.Procedure Oriented language
2.In this category we are able to create our project or programs using procedural approach means in this type we can able to divide our big project/program into small subroutines or procedures. After making procedures we can able to call a ‘procedure’ one or more places.
The lists of procedural languages are as follows:
C language
C++ (Object Oriented)
Java (Objected Oriented)
Smalltalk (Objected Oriented)
Pascal language
3.Non-Procedural Languages: This category also known as ‘Problem Oriented languages’. In this type of languages we can able to make program only at specific range like database. The followings are the examples of Non procedural languages
SQL (Structured Query Language)
SNOBOL (String processor)

History
C was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. Many of its principles and ideas were taken from the earlier language B and B's earlier ancestors BCPL and CPL. CPL ( Combined Programming Language ) was developed with the purpose of creating a language that was capable of both high level, machine independent programming and would still allow the programmer to control the behavior of individual bits of information. The one major drawback of CPL was that it was too large for use in many applications. In 1967, BCPL ( Basic CPL ) was created as a scaled down version of CPL while still retaining its basic features. In 1970, Ken Thompson, while working at Bell Labs, took this process further by developing the B language. B was a scaled down version of BCPL written specifically for use in systems programming. Finally in 1972, a co-worker of Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, returned some of the generality found in BCPL to the B language in the process of developing the language we now know as C.
C's power and flexibility soon became apparent. Because of this, the Unix operating system which was originally written in assembly language, was almost immediately re-written in C ( only the assembly language code needed to "bootstrap" the C code was kept ). During the rest of the 1970's, C spread throughout many colleges and universities because of it's close ties to Unix and the availability of C compilers. Soon, many different organizations began using their own versions of C causing compatibility problems. In response to this in 1983, the American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) formed a committee to establish a standard definition of C which became known as ANSI Standard C. Today C is in widespread use with a rich standard library of functions.

Significant Language Features
C is a powerful, flexible language that provides fast program execution and imposes few constraints on the programmer. It allows low level access to information and commands while still retaining the portability and syntax of a high level language. These qualities make it a useful language for both systems programming and general purpose programs.
C's power and fast program execution come from it's ability to access low level commands, similar to assembly language, but with high level syntax. It's flexibility comes from the many ways the programmer has to accomplish the same tasks. C includes bitwise operators along with powerful pointer manipulation capabilities. C imposes few constraints on the programmer. The main area this shows up is in C's lack of type checking. This can be a powerful advantage to an experienced programmer but a dangerous disadvantage to a novice.
Another strong point of C is it's use of modularity. Sections of code can be stored in libraries for re-use in future programs. This concept of modularity also helps with C's portability and execution speed. The core C language leaves out many features included in the core of other languages. These functions are instead stored in the C Standard Library where they can be called on when needed.. An example of this concept would be C's lack of built in I/O capabilities. I/O functions tend to slow down program execution and also be machine independent when running optimally. For these reasons, they are stored in a library separately from the C language and only included when necessary.

Areas of Application
The C programming language is used in many different areas of application, but the most prolific area is UNIX operating system applications. The C language is also used in computer games:
UNIX operating system
computer games

The Basics of the C Programming Language
C is a programming language that was invented (derived from B, actually) to be a low-level language that would facilitate more easily describing/writing operating system code.
It is general purpose.
The code itself is rather compact.
C is a procedural language (also called a functional language). This distinguishes it from (later invented) object-oriented languages.
NO OBJECTS. NO METHODS ON OBJECTS.
So, your first question ought to be: how does anything get accomplished without objects and methods?
Karen's answer: Computers are really just fancy calculators. Combined with the stored program concept, computers are fancy (and fast) calculators that can re-do their calculations over and over.
What does a computer/calculator do? Arithmetic. On variables. Variables are numerical values that may change over time.
The C language manipulates variables. (Just like any other programming language.)
In a procedural language, procedures (also called functions or subroutines) are the equivalent of an object-oriented language's methods. In C, we call them functions. They operate on parameters (which are often variables).
The control structures (of Java) that you already know were derived from C. The designers of Java (C++, too!) knew that the vast majority of programmers already knew C. Since no one was complaining about the syntax used in C, and so many already knew the syntax, the designers of the Java language used the same syntax! This implies that learning C should be quite easy. . .

MS-OFFICE and Its Applications:

Ms-Office:
Microsoft Office is an office suite of interrelated desktop applications, servers and services for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X operating systems. Microsoft Office was introduced by Microsoft in 1989 for the Mac OS,[1] with a version for Windows in 1990.[2] Initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Additionally, a "Pro" (Professional) version of Office included Microsoft Access and Schedule Plus. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications (OBA) brand.

APPLICATIONS:

Microsoft Word

and its SP2 update will support Microsoft Word is a word processor and was previously considered to be the main program in Office. Its proprietary DOC format is considered a de facto standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML-based, Microsoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX which has been standardized by ECMA as Office Open XMLODF and PDF. Word is also available in some editions of Microsoft Works. It is available for the Windows and Mac platforms. The first version of Word, released in the fall of 1983, was for the DOS operating system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse to a broad population. Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though one was not required. The following spring Apple introduced the Mac, and Microsoft released Word for the Mac, which became the most popular Mac application and which, like all Mac apps, required the use of a mouse.

Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program. It was originally a competitor to the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, but it eventually outsold it. It is available for the Windows and Mac platforms. The current Mac version (Office 2008) has removed Visual Basic functionality so macros cannot be used and those generated in previous iterations of Office no longer work. Microsoft announced in May 2008, that Visual Basic would be returning to Excel in future versions.

Microsoft Outlook/Entourage

Microsoft Outlook, not to be confused with Outlook Express, is a personal information manager and e-mail communication software. The replacement for Windows Messaging, Microsoft Mail and Schedule+ (Plus) starting in Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, task manager and address book. Although historically it has been offered for the Mac, the closest to an equivalent for Mac OS X is Microsoft Entourage, which offers a slightly different feature set.

Microsoft PowerPoint

Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular presentation program for Windows and Mac. It is used to create slideshows, composed of text, graphics, movies and other objects, which can be displayed on-screen and navigated through by the presenter or printed out on transparencies or slides. This is convenient for school or work presentations.Office Mobile for Windows Mobile 5.0 and later features a version of PowerPoint called PowerPoint Mobile. Movies, videos, sounds and music, as well as Wordart and Autoshapes can be added to slideshows.

Other desktop applications (Windows version only)

• Microsoft Access – Database manager.
• Microsoft Publisher – software for creating newsletters, business cards, flyers, greeting cards or postcards.
• Microsoft InfoPath – an application to design rich XML-based forms.
• Microsoft OneNote – Note-taking software for use with tablet PCs or regular PCs.
• Microsoft Office SharePoint Designer – a WYSIWYG HTML editor and web design program for customizing SharePoint applications, it replaces Microsoft Office FrontPage (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite).
• Microsoft Project – Project management software to keep track of events and to create network charts and Gantt charts (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite).
• Microsoft Visio – Diagram and flowcharting software (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite).
• Microsoft Office Accounting – a tool for managing business finances (it is not bundled in any Office 2007 suite, except for the Express edition).
• Microsoft Office Communicator – Integrated communications client for conferences and meetings in real time (it is bundled with Office 2007 Professional Plus and Enterprise 2007.
• Microsoft Office Document Imaging – an application that supports editing scanned documents.
• Microsoft Office Document Scanning – a scanning and OCR application.
• Microsoft Office Groove – a proprietary peer-to-peer collaboration software leveled at businesses.
• Microsoft Office InterConnect – Business-relationship database available only in Japan.
• Microsoft Office Picture Manager – Basic photo management software (similar to Google's Picasa or Adobe's Photoshop Elements). Replaced Microsoft Photo Editor.

Basics of Microsoft Word (MS Word)

File:

The collection of records is called file

New:

This is used for taking a new blank document.

Open:

For opening the already saved files

Close:

For closing the existing document

Save: For storing our document in the hard disk.

Save as: When ever we wanted to change the existing file name or location.

Exit: For closing the whole Ms word Application.

Edit:

Edit is used for changing the formats or placements of text.

Undo:

Reverse the last command.

Redo:

This command repeats the undo command.

Cut:For changing the placement of text in a document

Copy:

For copying text, paragraph.

Paste:

Inserts the copied or cut text or objects

Clear:

To remove the selected object or text

Select all:

For selecting all the text and object in a document

View:

Appearance of the document

Print layout:

Prepares the page ready for printing

Ruler:

Shows both horizontal and vertical Rulers, which are used for limitations

Full Screen:

To show our document in the whole screen

Insert:

It’s used for adding files, objects, charts, pictures

Date and time:

For inserting date and time in your document

Picture:

For adding pictures and shapes in the document

Text Box:

For inserting text provided limited area.

File:

For adding other office files to our existing document

Format

This menu is used for changing the formats and styles of text.

Font:

For selecting font styles, sizing, colors and effects.

Bullets & Numbering:

Is used for specifying a line or paragraph

Background:

For changing the color of the background in the existing document

Theme:

For applying already made Background, styles etc.

Tools:

This menu is used for Spelling & Grammar, Word Counting etc.

Spelling & Grammar:

This is used for checking the spelling and grammar of your existing document.

Word Count:

This is used for counting the lines, words, paragraphs and characters in your document.

Table:

For generating or creating a table in your document

raw Table:

For drawing or creating a table manually.

Insert:

For creating a table through giving range.

Delete:

To remove or clear a table(cell, row, column) from a document.

Select:

For selecting a table, row, column and cell.

Window:

This menu is used for Arranging, splitting our documents

New window:

This is used for taking the copy of the existing document as a duplicate.

Arrange All:

For arranging our documents in screen.

Split:

Dividing the window in panes

Help:

To solve the problems related to a topic in a document.

Microsoft word help:

Assistance providing by Microsoft

What’s This:

For getting information about a specific topic

About Microsoft Word:

To show all the information about this program, product license agreements

Toolbars:

To make the environment easier for the user so we can display useful toolbars

Standard:

The first standard toolbar in the tools used for displaying different options.

Example: Saving, Opening, Cutting, Pasting etc in a short way

To find out about other options available of the toolbar, take you mouse on each, do not click and just read text that appears for each option.

Basics of Microsoft Excel (MS Excel)

File

It is the first menu of MS EXCEL.

New:

This is used for taking a new blank document.

Open:

For opening the already saved files

Close:

For closing the existing document.

Save:

For storing our document in the hard disk.

Save as:

When ever we wanted to change the existing file name or location.

Exit:For closing the whole Ms excel Application.

Edit

Edit is used for changing the formats or placements of a text.

Undo:

Reverse the last command.

Redo:

This command repeats the undo command.

Cut:

For changing the placement of text in a worksheet.

Copy:

For copying text.

Paste:

Inserts the copied or cut text or objects

Clear:

To remove the selected object or text

Delete Sheet:

Removal of complete sheet

Paste:

Inserts the copied or cut text or objects

View

Appearance of the document

Normal:

It is a default format for most of the tasks like entering data, charting and formatting.

Formula bar:

They show the current formula.

Status bar

They show current status of the page

Full Screen:

To show our document in the whole screen

Insert

The addition of thing like cells, columns, worksheet and picture

Cell

The combination of rows and columns to make an individual basic unit

Column

The vertically Gridlines which are started from A1 ended with IV.

Row

Horizontal gridlines is called row.

Worksheet

The working area of Ms excel page in which editing, calculation are included.

Picture

The addition pictures and text shapes in the document.

Format

To make the outlook of a page like font style, row and column adjustment.

Cells

They adjust the cell number, alignment, font, border and patterns.

Row

We can adjust row height, auto fit, hide and unhide.

Column

We can adjust column width, auto fit selection, hide and unhide

Sheet

We can change the appearance of the sheet like rename, hide and unhide.

Style

They show all the formats applied on the worksheet.

Tools

This menu provides different options like spelling check, protection etc.

Spelling & Grammar

This is used for checking the spelling and grammar of your existing document.

Share workbook

In this more than one person can contribute in it or change it.

Protection

We can protect sheet, workbook and shared workbook.

Data

Sorting

Arrange the information like alphabets, numbers in selected rows.

Filter

The quickest way to select those items that you want to display in the list.

Table

Table is based on the input values and information & also shows the changes in the database.

Text columns

To convert selected text to a table

Window

This menu is used for Arranging, splitting our documents

New window

The creation of a copy of active window to view different parts at the same time.

Arrange all

Display all the opened files and arrange in a specific format so that dragging can easily be done.

Hide

To hide the window temporarily.

Split

To divide active window into panels

Help

To solve the problems related to a topic or functionality in a Workbook.

Microsoft Excel help (F1)

Assistance provided by Microsoft.

Microsoft Excel help (F1)

Assistance provided by Microsoft.

What’s This?

Information about a specific topic and its functionality

Office on the web

You can take information from Internet to solve your problems.

Detect and repair

This process automatically detect and also trying to repair your errors.

Basics of Microsoft PowerPoint

(MS PowerPoint)

The picture on the right shows the view once you open MS PowerPoint.

Auto content wizard

It is a process through which we can make presentation automatically.

The computer will guide the user through every step to make a presentation.

Design template

Design templates contain predestined formats, styles and color schemes you can apply to any presentation to give it a particular look.

Blank presentation

This type of presentation is completely blank so we can make it on our own choice.

Open an existing presentation

When we want to open an already existing file or presentation to do some changes or enhancement in it.

Slides Types

User can select different type of slides from the following layouts

File

It is the first menu of power point

New:

This is used for taking a new blank presentation page.

Open:

For opening the already saved files or presentation.

Close:

For closing the existing document.

Save:

For storing our presentation in the hard disk.

Save as:

When ever we wanted to change the existing file name or location

Exit:

Using for closing the whole MS POWER POINT Application.

Edit

Edit is used for changing the formats or placements of a text.

Undo:

Reverse the last command.

Redo:

This command repeats the undo command.

Cut:

For changing the placement of text in a slide.

Copy:

For copying text.

Paste:

Inserts the copied or cuted text or objects.

Clear:

To remove the selected object or text.

Delete slide:

Removal of complete slide

View

Appearance of the slide

Normal

It is a default format for most of the tasks like entering data, charting and formatting slide.

Slide sorter

This process shows all slides, text and graphics. It also provides the ability to reorder slides, animation of slides and set timing for electronic slide show.

Slide show

Displays slides in full screen mode in the order specified by user.

Ruler

Specifies the horizontal and vertical position in the slide to user.

Zoom

This option provide full screen to the user.

Insert

The addition of Objects, Slides, charts, tables, pictures…

New slide:

Taking a new slide in your presentation.

Duplicate slide

Taking a similar copy of the current or active slide.

Slides from File

Taking an already made slide from another presentation to current presentation.

Picture

For adding pictures and shapes in the Slide.

Text Box

For inserting text provided limited area.

Table

Inserting a user-defined table in the slide.

Format

This menu is used for changing the formats and styles of text.

Font

For selecting font styles, sizing, colors and effects.

Alignment

To adjust the text in the slide (left, right, center)

Background

Sets background picture, color and texture.

Apply Design Template

Apply pre-defined templates of PowerPoint in the slide

Tools

This menu is used for spelling & Grammar

Spelling & Grammar

Used for checking the spelling and grammar of existing slide.

Language

If a user uses more then one language then they define the language for that slide.

Slide Show

In this menu we can apply animations and timings in a full screen mode to our slide.

View Show

Running our slide in full screen mode in specific order.

Rehearse Timing

User can apply timing to each slide in a presentation.

Hide Slide

Those slide which users don’t want to display in the slide show.

Window

This menu is used for Arranging, Fitting slides…

New window

This is used for taking the copy of the existing Presentation as a duplicate.

Arrange All

Arranging our Presentations in screen

Help

To solve the problems related to a topic or functionality in a Presentation

Microsoft PowerPoint Help (F1)

Assistance providing by Microsoft.

What’s This?

Information about a specific topic and its functionality.

Office on the web

You can take information from Internet to solve your problems.

Detect and repair

This process automatically detect and also trying to repair your errors

Microsoft Access (MS Access)

Blank access database

This option is used for making a new database.

Access Database wizards, Pages, and projects

This option is used for making pages, projects and etc through wizard.\

Open an existing file

We can open already saved file through this option.

Table

Objects

Table, Query, Forms, Report, Pages, Macro, Module.

Database shortcuts

Create table in design view

We can create our tables by designing them manually.

Create table by using wizard

We can create our tables by using wizards.

Create table by entering data

We can enter our data by entering them in a list.

Query

To communicate with the program through a specific language.

Create query in design view

Create a query by specifying the input tables/queries field names filters and sorting.

Create query by using wizard

The computer asks questions and creates a query for the user.

Forms

Create form in design view:

Create a form manually (specifying the record source, control and control properties).

Create form by using wizard

Creating form through wizard options (prompts and asks questions from user).

Report

Taking print outs of the database on daily bases

Create report in design view

Create a report manually (specifying the record source, control and control properties).

Create report by using wizard

Creating a report through wizard options (prompts and asks questions from user).

Pages

User can create a page from the database that accessed effectively.

Create data access page in design view

Create a data access page manually (specifying the record source, control and control properties).

Create data access page by using wizard

Creating data access page through wizard options (prompts and asks questions from user).

Edit web page that already exists

Adding the already present web page in the data access page

Macro

A macro is a set of one or more actions that each performs a particular operation like opening a form or printing a report

Module

A module is a collection of Visual Basic Applications declarations and procedures that are stored together as a unit.

File

It is the first menu of MS ACCESS.

New

This is used for taking new databases.

Open

For opening the already saved files

Close

For closing the existing database.

Save

For storing our database in the hard disk

Save as

When ever we wanted to change the existing file name or location

Exit

For closing the whole Ms Access Application

Edit

Edit is used for changing the formats or placements of a text.

Undo

Reverse the last command.

Redo

This command repeats the undo command.

Cut

For changing the placement of text in a worksheet

Copy

For copying text

Paste

Inserts the copied or cut text or objects

Delete

The removing of any thing from the database like (text, rows and column)

View

Appearance of the document

Table

Create a new table in datasheet view.

Query

Create a new query without using wizard.

Form

Create a new form without using wizard.

Report

Create a new report without using wizard.

Page

Create a new data access page without using wizard.

Macro

How the user apply a set of actions on different operation like on column, rows etc.

Module

They are used to perform actions on operations in MS visual basic.

Tools

This menu is used for Spelling & Grammar…

Spelling & Grammar

This is used for checking the spelling and grammar of your existing document.

Security

They are used to secure the database by using passwords, permissions, encryption or decryption.

Macro

They are used for coding in MS Visual Basic for a particular action.

Window

This menu is used for tile horizontal, tile vertical and arranges icons.

Tile horizontal

They arrange MS Access window is horizontal pane that all windows are visible and cannot overlap each other

Tile vertical

They arrange MS Access window is vertical pane that all windows are visible and cannot overlap each other.

Arrange icon

They arrange all icons of database windows.

Hide

User can hide the current window.

Unhide

User can remove the hide option to see the window.

Help

To solve the problems related to a topic or functionality in a Presentation

Microsoft Access Help (F1)

INTERNET

How to use Internet

BACKGROUND

· The Internet as we know it today began around 1969 with ARPANet, a network created by the United States Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.

· Originally connecting four universities, the network allowed scientists across the country to share information and resources through their computers.

· In 1983, ARPANet decides to use TCP/IP as a standard protocol for all computers connected to the network to talk to each other.

· In 1993, the World Wide Web (www) came into being.

· World Wide Web uses hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and hypertext links that change the way information can be organized, presented and accessed on the Internet.

WHAT IS THE INTERNET?

· The Internet also referred to as the Net, Information Superhighway, or Cyberspace, is the largest electronic network which enables computers connected to the network to share data and resources

· The Internet is not owned by any one organization but rather made up of individual networks which own their own servers (to hold the data) and routers and switches (to allow users to access the data).

WHAT IS A URL?

· Just like every house has a unique address, each web page has a unique address, called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

· The first part of the address indicates what protocol to use, and the second part specifies the IP address or the domain name where the resource is located.

· The remaining information identifies specific directories or files within the domain.

· You can display a web page by simply typing its URL into the address line of your web browser (a program or application that uses internet).

· The most popular domain extension is .com for commercial websites. Other extensions include .org for non-profit organizations, .edu for educational institutions, or .gov for governmental sites.

WHAT IS A HTML?

· HTML is short for Hyper Text Markup Language, the language used to write or create documents on the World Wide Web.

· HTML defines the structure and layout of a Web document by using a variety of tags and attributes.

WHAT IS A BROWSER?

· The term browser is short for Web browser, a software application used to locate and display Web pages. The most popular browser is Microsoft Internet Explorer.

THE ISP (Internet Service Provider)

· Your ISP is the gateway (or middleman) that provides connection to the Internet.

· An ISP provides cables, fiber optic, and telephone lines along which data can travel between computers.

· In Pakistan, Pakistan Telecommunication Corporation Limited (PTCL) is the biggest ISP.

OPENING THE INTERNET BROWSER

To open your browser and see all that the World Wide Web has to offer:

· Double-click the Internet Explorer Icon on your desktop

OR

· Choose Start > Programs > Internet Explorer

FEATURES OF A BROWSER WINDOW

TITLE BAR

· It displays the name of the program (Internet Explorer), and the name of the web page.

MENU BAR

· As in all windows-based programs, click a word on the menu bar to display a menu of additional program commands.

STANDARD BUTTONS

· Navigational buttons that aid in viewing, searching, saving and printing web pages.

ADDRESS BAR

· Display the current web page’s URL.

· You can also type a URL into the Address bar and press Enter/Return to view the URL.

PAGE AREA

· The portion of the window that displays web pages

LINKS BAR

· You can use it to add web pages that you visit often.

STATUS BAR

· The status bar has two uses: first it notifies you of the status of loading web pages, and second, the status bar displays the security level

VIEWING TOOLBARS

To display or hide toolbars, choose View > Toolbars and make your selection.

OTHER BROWSER CHARACTERISTICS

· To change the text size, choose View > Text Size and select an option from the submenu

· To change the default font or colors, choose Tools > Internet Options and click the Font or colors buttons on the General tab. Click OK to save the changes.

· To change all fonts and colors, choose Tools > Internet Options and click the Accessibility button. Click OK to save the changes.

Browser standard buttons

· Click the Back button to move to the previously viewed web page Or

· Click the arrow next to the icon to choose any of the previously viewed web pages.

· Refresh button is used to refresh a web page

· Home button is used to go to home page (your default web page)

· Stop button is used to cancel the action of downloading or opening a web page.

· The Search button is used to enter appropriate information and search for it.

· Click the Favorites button to display your list of favorites. You can organize, edit, delete, or view your favorite web pages

· Click History button to get a list of dates and pages viewed on those dates. Click a page and it should appear in the page area.

Other actions for Internet Web Browser include:

· SETTING THE HOME PAGE

· ADDING FAVORITES

· VIEWING A FAVORITE

· ORGANIZING FAVORITES

· SEARCHING OVER THE INTERNET

KEYWORDS

· Most recent browser versions allow you to type keywords into the Address bar, press Enter and the browser itself acts as a search engine.

INTENET EMAIL USING YAHOO

· Yahoo is a facility to open and maintain an E-Mail Account in Internet without paying additional charges.

· The cost is covered within Internet usage charges.

· Yahoo is a web site. To access Yahoo, you must have an Internet connection.

HOW TO OPEN YAHOO ACCOUNT

· Open Internet Explorer Type www.Yahoo.com (in Address Bar) and press Enter

· Click Sign UP now! After some moments, you will see terms and conditions. This is a long page. At the end of the page, click I Accept

YAHOO MAIL REGISTRATION FORM

· You will see a registration form. Follow the instructions of your trainer and fill up carefully. Do not leave any column blank.

· Make sure to remember your Username and Password as these are the two you will use in future to open your email account.

HOW TO ACCESS YAHOO ACCOUNT

· Open Internet Explorer and type www.Yahoo.com (in Address Bar) and press Enter.

· On the yahoo web page, click on Mail using your mouse.

· Type Yahoo ID or Username and Password in the specified boxes and click Sign In or press Enter

· Now click Continue (at the end of the page) that appears when you have signed in for the first time.

· Yahoo will take you to your Inbox. You will see a message from Yahoo Staff. Click Yahoo Staff

HOW TO SEE IN-COMING MAIL

· When you are given access to your Yahoo Account, you are in your Inbox. You can see the list of in-coming messages.

· To read the message, click on relevant message under the heading FROM

HOW TO PREPARE NEW MESSAGE

· To prepare new message: Click New / Compose

· Type E-Mail Address (correct and complete address of the person to whom you want to send mail).

· Click in Subject box Type Subject (Do not leave TO box and Subject box blank) Click in the main box.

· Type the message. Type your name at the end of the message

HOW TO SEND E-MAIL MESSAGE

· After preparing E-Mail message: Click Send from Toolbar above. You will have the following message:

Sent Message Confirmation

Your message has been sent to the following recipients:

emailaddress@yahoo.com

· Click OK

· You will come back to your Inbox

HOW TO SEE SENT MESSAGE

· While you are in Inbox: Click Folders Sent Messages You can also see Drafts (if you have clicked Save Draft in Compose Window).

HOW TO ATTACH A FILE WITH E-MAIL MESSAGE

· You can attach a file (available in your computer) with your E-Mail-mail message. After typing the message:

· Click Attachments and then click Browse. (Select folder .and double click the relevant file)

· Attach to Message and then click DONE

· The file will be attached with your message. Now: Click SEND.

OPEN A FILE ATTACHED TO A MESSAGE IN YOUR INBOX

· Once you open the email, click on the file name that is attached to the message.

· Click Download Attachment

· Click Open or Save to take necessary action for the concerned file.

HOW TO DELETE MESSAGE FROM INBOX

· When the Inbox is open, click in the small box on left of the message(s), which you want to delete. Now: Click Delete.

HOW TO SEE DELETED MESSAGES

· Deleted Messages are stored in Trash Can automatically. To see deleted messages:

· Click Trash Can.

HOW TO MAINTAIN ADDRESS BOOK

· You can maintain address book in Yahoo. This will save your time in typing addresses in Compose Window.

· For this: Click Addresses and Create New.

· Type particulars of the addressee carefully (you can leave some columns blank)

· Click OK In future, when you want to send E-Mail to any person from Address Book: Click Addresses, Click -on the relevant address, under the heading Mail to: Compose Window (with address typed) will open automatically. T

· To delete an address: Click Delete in front of the address (and wait for some moments) Click Delete again

HOW TO CHANGE PASSWORD

· Click Options and then Password. In relevant boxes: Type Old Password and then type New Password. Then type New Password again. You will have the following message:

PASSWORD CONFIRMATION

Your Password has been successfully changed. Please remember your new Password.

HOW TO CLOSE YAHOO

· Click x at top right comer. Internet Explorer will also be closed.

HOW TO SIGN OUT

· At top of Window, click Sign Out Message.